The Constructs of Wisdom In Human Development and Consciousness

Vana R. Prewitt, M.Ed.
Fielding Institute

Abstract

Since Peter Senge wrote “The Fifth Discipline” ten years ago, interest in the
theories of learning organizations and knowledge management have increased
significantly. Recently, ideas about managing higher levels of knowledge, known as
“wisdom”, have surfaced in organization development circles.
But what is wisdom? Where does it come from? Can it be measured, developed,
or managed? What would it mean to have and develop wisdom consciously within an
organization? Can wisdom be collective, as in creating a wise organization?
This paper explores these questions through the foundational research and
theories of Piaget, Kohlberg, Maslow, and Erikson, then investigates contemporary
wisdom studies. Although the work to date help us understand the nature of human
development within the workplace, much work is needed before wisdom studies can be
used responsibly for employee or leadership development.


Introduction
When asked, most people would probably assume that they know the meaning of
the word “wisdom,” or at least would recognize wise behavior if and when they saw it. If
pressed for an exact definition, they might refer to The American Heritage Dictionary
(Morris, 1976):
1. understanding of what is true, right, or lasting.
2. common sense; sagacity; good judgment
3. learning; erudition.
Wisdom is generally characterized by goodness, often related to judgment, using
acquired knowledge.
Why Wisdom Studies Matter
This article explores the constructs of wisdom and is motivated by four significant
changes in U.S. business during the last century:
1. During the height of the industrial revolution in 1920, Henri Fayol and
Frederick Taylor espoused “scientific management” methods that reduced the
sphere of individual responsibility and job duties down to the smallest
increment (Taylor, 1911). At the time, the average employee education was
less than sixth grade and 70% of the American gross national product was
agricultural and manufacturing (Historical statistics of the U.S.: colonial times
to 1970, 1970)
2. Seventy years later, the average employee has two years of college education
(Educational attainment, 1998), but is still being managed like an assembly
Constructs of Wisdom 4
line employee (Peters, 1992). Agriculture and manufacturing represent only
30% of America’s gross domestic product, (National Accounts Data, 1998)
which means the wealth of the nation is not in hardware and equipment, but in
knowledge and people.
3. Americans are living longer and in better health than in 1920, which means
more productive, unemployed years after age 65, the traditional year of
retirement (Stevens-Long & Commons, 1992).
4. At the same time, the average age of the workforce is increasing. Fewer young
people are coming into the workforce to replace those who are retiring or
leaving in disgust. The number of small and home-based businesses have
skyrocketed in the last ten years.
This raises some concern about keeping companies running as effectively and efficiently
as possible, given the many changes that have occurred in the workplace, and will occur,
during the coming years. Finding ways to capture, store, retrieve, and use the knowledge
and wisdom of those who are leaving the workforce seems a worthwhile effort. This
belief launched the search for a better understanding of what wisdom in the workplace is,
how it functions, where it comes from, who has it, and whether it can be developed or is
some inherent quality of humans that is comparable to the gift of being able to sing in
key.
Constructs of Wisdom 5
A Wisdom Hierarchy
The search for relevant literature on wisdom hits several forks in the research road (See
Figure 1). There is a rich history of wisdom literature within philosophy and theology
(Robinson, 1990), which is not included in this discussion, nor are some emerging
theories of wisdom included that hypothesize that biochemical changes may cause or
contribute to the development of wisdom (Birren & Bengston, 1998). Likewise,
discussion of Oriental concepts of wisdom that focus on intuition, psychic knowledge,
and being at peace with oneself (Takahashi, 1999), (Levitt, 1999) will be omitted from
this discussion.
Figure 1. Schematic classification of wisdom theories.
Within this paper, wisdom is seen as an emergent characteristic of the mature
adult, built upon intelligence, experience, and a reflective nature. Consistent with
Sternberg’s definition (Sternberg, 1998), wisdom is evidenced during conflict that
requires a balanced perspective of multiple points of view and fair judgment.
Constructs of Wisdom 6
Relatively little was written about wisdom as a feature of human cognitive
development until ten years ago, when Wisdom: its nature, origins, and development
(Sternberg, 1990) was published. Books on cognitive development, gerontology, and
social psychology rarely provided an indexed entry under the heading of wisdom, let
alone an entire chapter. It is not clear whether the new wisdom studies reflect the
refinement of previous research and theories, or a rehash of old research and theories
with a new name.
A Foundational Web of Wisdom
Lifespan Developmental Psychology
Lifespan Developmental Psychology (LDP) is a field of study strongly associated
with Piaget who linked mental and physical development in children. Piaget’s theories
and research results have not been considered valid for understanding adult development
because Piaget’s developmental stages end at adolescence. What might be assumed about
cognitive development when the human body does not appear to be maturing any longer?
As one LDP researcher believes, Piaget never intended his work on childhood
development to be the end of the line of inquiry; it was just a start (Sinnott, 1998). After
all, one must start somewhere and the reasonable place to begin is at the beginning.
Within an historical context, the trend in the early part of the last century was to
focus on biological influences rather than social. Frued likewise constructed his work
from the assumption that external forces, rather than internal drives, had the greater
influence over development (Commons, Richards, & Armon, 1984).
Many criticisms have been made of Piaget’s work, including the fact that as a
biologist in the study of mollusks, he would not be considered qualified today to evaluate
Constructs of Wisdom 7
the development of human beings (Bidell & Fischer, 1992). However, Piaget performed
what was considered at the time relatively unscientific research — he studied his own
children and made his conclusions based on observation. Positivists of the time
discredited Piaget’s work as unreliable.
While the focus on childhood development is only marginally related to OD,
Piaget’s belief that humans proceed through predictable stages of development is a model
that can be applied to adult development as well, including the study of wisdom. The
popular myth of the ancient wise one is truly just a myth. Older people appear to have no
more or less wisdom than adults in their middle years (Dixon & Baltes, 1986). What does
appear relevant, is that there are certain preconditions to achieving wisdom, and these
preconditions can be viewed as developmental stages to that goal of becoming a wise
person.
Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg adopted Piaget’s stages of development for his own work on
moral development. (Miller, 1989), which demonstrates how that model could be applied
to study other dimensions of adult development. Additionally, Kohlberg took a radical
step towards trying to develop moral judgment in humans. We might assume that a
person is born with moral tendencies, or that morality is established so early in a child’s
development that making adjustments later in life would be fruitless. Nonetheless,
Kohlberg’s attempts to develop moral thought demonstrated that individuals exposed to
moral dilemmas for instructional purposes were able to improve their moral thinking
(Kuhmerker, Gielen, & Hays, 1991). These studies provide direct applications to the
possible development of wisdom (Labouvie-Vief, 1992),(Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).
Constructs of Wisdom 8
Like current wisdom studies, Kohlberg’s model for moral development required
judgment in the face of social conflict that could produce benefits for people as a whole.
Erikson
Erik Erikson contributed significantly to our understanding of how adults develop
socially, and used of the word wisdom within his discussion and model of psychosocial
development. Instead of Piaget’s focus on cognitive skills, Erikson posed a model of
development that is closely aligned with the work of human motivation as described by
Maslow, or emotional well-being as might be described by Frued.
Erikson defines wisdom as “detached concern with life itself, in the face of death
itself” (Erickson et al., 1986, p. 37) and integrity as the quality of being personally
integrated of soul and mind. The most useful perspective in Erikson’s thinking on
wisdom is identifying a prerequisite of having come to terms with death. Some of the
current wisdom research indicates that a prerequisite to attaining wisdom is arriving at
this spiritual plane. In other words, the person who has not sincerely reflected upon his or
her life in preparation for death is not able to take up the mantle of a wise person
(Assmann, 1994). Thus, in line with Jung’s work on personality, Erikson’s focus for
wisdom is personality-based.
Maslow
Within Maslow’s descriptions of self-actualization, he says that he agonized over
what to call this level of achievement. He had a working title of “good human being” for
many years before he started his research. He referred to the self-actualized person as one
who was capable of authentic selfhood (i.e.: integrated?) and who hears the impulse
voices (i.e: emotional intelligence?) (Goleman, 1995) from within that tell us what we
Constructs of Wisdom 9
really want and don’t want from life. Without specifying it, Maslow was describing the
mature reflective person who listens to the inner voice and is conscious of words and
actions before executing them – views that are consistent with modern definitions of
wisdom.
He also said that the self-actualized person is mature, has transcended deficiency
needs, and is in a metamotivated (or unmotivated) state of being, rather than striving to
be. The rationale for claiming an unmotivated state is that only a need to achieve higher
states of being will motivate a person since the current state of being is no longer capable
of providing motivation. Another way of looking at this is to say the self-actualized
person is a person at peace with oneself and existence, someone who has come to terms
with who, what, and where s/he is in life.
New Research Paradigms
Wisdom is not a concept that is easily defined. As we say in the world of
organization development, “it is like trying to nail jello to a wall.” As stated in the
introduction to this paper, most people think they know it when they see it, and can
probably provide a few descriptors of wisdom, but that is about as far as our
understanding of it goes. Wisdom did not fit nicely into reductionist thinking nor
positivist models. It has not been taken seriously in the lifespan psychology field until
recently, having been seen as “not scientific.” This particular battle continues, as will be
explained in the next section.
Wisdom Theorists
The individuals most closely associated with current wisdom studies are Baltes,
Staudinger, and Sternberg. While others have published periodically on the subject, only
Constructs of Wisdom 10
these three have continued to research and write on wisdom extensively. Most of the
early works came from the field of gerontology, where cognitive wisdom research
remains firmly entrenched.
Postformal Thought
Piaget discussed cognitive development through adolescence, dubbing everything
from age 11 and beyond as the formal operations stage, where an individual thinks about
thinking and is able to conceptualize at least one abstraction. This does not, however,
convey the skills of an older adult who is able to conceptualize multiple abstractions,
synthesize and create new knowledge from those abstractions, and apply them in new
ways. To discover adult developmental theories, I had to turn to newer theorists who
represent a neo-Piagetian body of literature – that which builds on Piaget’s theories while
acknowledging his theory’s deficits.
The area of study known as post-formal thinking includes contributions by many
who have also published to the growing cognitive development wisdom literature
(Alexander & Langer, 1990), (King & Kitchener, 1994). Studies of aging adults have
included various tests of cognition, many of which indicate a decline as one ages. As
researchers explored these results further, they concluded that at least two types of
cognitive processes were at work during adulthood, one that is traditionally measured by
academic tests and standardized intelligence tests and another which is not measured
well, if at all. The second type of adult intelligence is represented by practical and applied
skills, abilities, and performance processes that approach situations on the whole, rather
in the reductionist states represented in IQ tests. These two types of cognition are referred
to as fluid and crystallized intelligence (Horn, 1994).
Constructs of Wisdom 11
Fluid and crystallized intelligence are determined by a measure of eight broad
categories of performance: (1) short-term memory (2) comprehension-knowledge (3)
quantitative ability (4) visual processing (5) auditory processing (6) associative storageretrieval
(7) novel reasoning and (8) processing speed. This particular thread of wisdom
research helps us understand that age and wisdom are independent, not interdependent
variables.
The emerging theme is that adults past their middle years acquire more
crystallized intelligence such as long-term memory, and experience declines of fluid
intelligence, such as short-term memory. As one developmental psychologist told me, “it
isn’t that older people are less intelligent than young people. [Cognitive psychologists]
are measuring the wrong things!”(Sinnott, 2000). As the politically and economically
powerful “baby boomers” become seniors, we can expect to see a greater emphasis on
understanding what cognitive abilities seniors have and how their collective wisdom
might best be used to further social welfare.
Towson University professor, Jan Sinnott, Ph.D, has written a book about
postformal development that makes sense to me. I feel it sums up what we know about
cognitive development after adolescence in a thorough and compelling manner. Reading
her book, The Development of Logic in Adulthood (Sinnott, 1998) gave me such a jolt of
enthusiasm that I had to talk to her and meet her. The threads of adult development
related to wisdom that I have pulled from one theorist or another are quite compactly
presented in her book, while not specifically addressing wisdom. Among the most
important elements include:
􀂾 A critique of traditional approaches for understanding adult development
Constructs of Wisdom 12
􀂾 Seeing adult development within the context of complex adaptive systems
􀂾 Results of behavioral research and a methodology for replicating Sinnott’s
work
􀂾 Specific applications for the model and research methodology she has
outlined, including applications to education, business, creativity, and
spirituality.
I found that I had to read the book more than once, and underlined it heavily. I feel
certain it will be a reference book I use frequently during my Fielding studies.
With specific reference to wisdom research, Sinnott shies away from embracing
the work of either Baltes or Sternberg, the two leading researchers in the field. Like me,
she finds neither model “very satisfying” (Sinnott, 2000). In her book, however, she does
allude to the connection between her model of postformal development and studies of
wisdom.
Postformal thought permits an awareness of the other logics or the other types of
‘wisdoms’ and provides a way to cognitively regulate them on a personal level. [p
327]
The synthesis involved in postformally living in balance involves being open to the
spirit of possibility, as the existentialists are, open to creating the chosen . [p.
327]
Wisdom, too, by any definition, implies living in balance [p. 328]
Of particular interest to my primary purpose in studying wisdom, is Sinnott’s
integration of organizational learning and development to her theory of postformal
development. She indicates that the culture of an organization can have postformal
qualities, and that those characteristics can be assessed as well as developed.
Constructs of Wisdom 13
The organization can also have a postformal culture. If it does, it is able to
envision the several ways it might “be” or operate as a unit. This makes ongoing
reform easier and more likely to occur whether the current CEO is calling for a
“learning organization” or not. Organizations that enjoy a postformal culture are
more likely to be able to reinvent themselves as the need arises and emerge with a
sustainable transformation [p 236].
This thought brings me full circle to my original quest in this process of inquiry. What is
wisdom? How do we know it when we see it? Can it be assessed and/or developed?
Sinnott responds in the affirmative to the last question. Major theorists in wisdom studies
are still arguing about the first two questions. A brief summary of their positions follow.
Understanding Wisdom
Most of the research to date on wisdom has been to define the word. What, after
all, is wisdom? Personally, I am more interested in the operational refinement of that
question:
􀂾 How do you know it when you see it?
􀂾 Can it be assessed validly and reliably?
􀂾 Can it be developed?
􀂾 Do we know what preconditions must be present for wisdom to develop?
As I researched the questions, I found these are concerns shared by others in the field
(Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1990), (Sinnott, 2000), (Staudinger, 1998), (Labouvie-
Vief, 1990).
Definitions. Table 1 provides a summary overview of the major theorists’
definitions of wisdom. I have not included the more philosophical descriptions, of which
there are many, because they do not seem very useful for furthering an operationalized
model. My own definition is perhaps a hybrid of Sternberg’s and Baltes. I would say that
wisdom, especially within the workplace, is thoughtful judgment or decisions made
Constructs of Wisdom 14
when no heuristics exist for a conflict with social consequences. The key element for
me is that the judgment being made is other-focused, and not self-centered. The same
definition, applied to self-centered issues, would be termed practical intelligence,
(Sternberg & Wagner, 1986) otherwise known as common sense.
Constructs of Wisdom 15
Table 1 Explicit definitions of wisdom
Author Definition Citation
Assman Validated action, behavior, or attitude…an
honorific predicate reserved for a specific
form of knowledge
(Assmann, 1994)
Baltes & Staudinger Expert level knowledge and judgement [sic]
in the fundamental pragmatics of life
(Staudinger, 1999)
Birren & Fisher Integration of affective, conative, and
cognitive aspects of human abilities in
response to life’s tasks and problems.
(Birren & Fisher,
1990)
Erikson, Erikson &
Kivnick
Wisdom is detached concern with life itself
in the face of experience, in spite of the
decline of bodily and mental functions.
(Erickson et al.,
1986)
Meacham A balance between knowing and doubting (Meacham, 1990)
Sternberg Application of tacit knowledge as mediated
by values toward the goal of achieving a
common good; procedural knowledge under
difficult and complex circumstances
(Sternberg, 1998)
Among other nonoperational definitions that exist for wisdom is Labouvie-Vief’s, which
is really more of a model than a definition, since it describes how wisdom operates rather
than what it is. It integrates mythos and logos, or the metaphysical and cognitive ways of
knowing that were separated in the 19th century (Labouvie-Vief, 1990). My failure to
cite other wisdom scholars in this particular context is not to slight their work, but to
focus on definitions that are operational or have the potential for being so.
Descriptions. In many instances, theorists and researchers have been content to
describe wisdom from their own perspective or from the perspectives of their subjects.
Operational definitions may not emerge from their work, but characterizations observable
behavior are noted, as described in Table 2.
Constructs of Wisdom 16
Table 2 Behaviors That Demonstrate Wisdom
Author Behaviors Citation
Assman The wise person abstains from the desire to
change the world according to one’s desires. The
impulse is no longer to change the world but to
stabilize it and preserve the ecological balance [p
195]
(Assmann, 1994)
Baltes &
Staudinger;
Staudinger,
Lopez, &
Baltes
Interpersonal competence, self knowledge,
giving advice, concern for others, values
differences, manages uncertainty.
Reflexivity, social intelligence, impulse control
(emotional intelligence)
(Baltes & Staudinger,
2000), (Staudinger,
Lopez, & Baltes,
1997)
Birren &
Fisher
Balance between intense emotions and
detachment, action and inaction, knowledge and
doubt
(Birren & Fisher,
1990)
Kitcherner
& Brenner
Awareness of the unknown and implications for
real-world problem solving and judgment
(Kitchener & Brenner,
1990)
Meacham Using knowledge with an understanding of its
fallibility, with caution, and concern for social
consequences.
(Meacham, 1990)
Orwoll &
Perlmutter
Understanding, introspective, knowledgeable,
observant, experienced, intuitive, empathic,
intelligent
(Orwoll & Perlmutter,
1990)
While not varied or extensive, some wisdom researchers and theorists have
identified specific conditions that promote the development of wisdom. Two important
themes emerge from reading the works of other theorists, and those are (1) a need to
make a judgment when you have no way of knowing if the decision is a good one or not,
and (2) having come to terms with one’s own mortality. The second issue truly harkens
back to Erikson, and to a process of personal integration of mind and soul.
Constructs of Wisdom 17
Table 3 Conditions That Give Rise to Wisdom
Author Conditions Citation
Assman Requirement for judgment when there are no
rules available.
Having reflected on life’s accomplishments,
coming to terms with death.
(Assmann, 1994)
Birren &
Fisher
Shifting the balance from acting to reflecting,
often, but not necessarily, associated with the
aging process
(Birren & Fisher,
1990)
Sternberg Role modeling and dialectical thinking (Sternberg, 1998)
Measuring Wisdom
At the heart of my initial quest for information was to uncover any efforts being
made to assess, measure, and systematically develop wisdom, especially in workplace
settings. In part, Sinnott (Sinnott, 1998) has addressed the beginnings of this work in her
book, even though her model is not specifically directed towards developing wisdom.
Sternberg has given considerable thought to the integrated and systemic processes
that influence the presence and/or development of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998). In
particular, he identifies multiple competencies that facilitate wisdom, such as social and
emotional intelligence, and ability to access tacit knowledge. A review of competencies
identified by several researchers is presented in Table 4
Constructs of Wisdom 18
Table 4 Competencies For Developing Wisdom
Author Competencies Citation
Arlin Openness to change. Knowing what one
doesn’t know.
(Arlin, 1990)
Chandler &
Holliday
Overall competence, good judgment,
communication skills, see the big picture,
exceptional understanding
(Chandler & Holliday,
1990)
Labouvie-Vief Integration of emotional/personality and
logical thought
(Labouvie-Vief, 1990)
Meacham Sagacity: considers advice, willing to learn
from others, thoughtfulness, good listener,
willing to admit mistakes, considers all sides
of an issue before deciding
(Meacham, 1990)
Orwoll &
Perlmutter
Advanced self-development and selftranscendence
(Orwoll & Perlmutter,
1990)
Sternberg Understanding the cognition, motivation, and
affect of involved poeple. Balancing varied
interests. Reflective judgment. Practical
intelligence. Knowing one’s limits and what
one doesn’t know
(Sternberg, 1998)
What appears to have the most value to my inquiry is a summarization of the
behavioral competencies that would be desired among employees and within an
organization’s culture. The areas of greatest overlap appear to be:
􀂾 Emotional intelligence, (Goleman, 1995) maturity, impulse control.
􀂾 Reflective and thoughtful judgment.
􀂾 Concern for the social fabric of an organization.
􀂾 Empathy, compassion, caring.
􀂾 Humble.
􀂾 Significant life experience upon which to draw.
􀂾 Social intelligence: valuing diversity, listening to others, open to new ideas,
asking for help and willing to admit mistakes/ignorance.
Constructs of Wisdom 19
This list is one that I could use as a guide within an organization and build intentionally
towards a wise organizational culture. As a model, it integrates well with my concerns
for learning organizations (Senge, 1990)
Constructs of Wisdom 20
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